This problem of a computer not shutting down is actually more common than you might think, and the solution to this problem is in fact pretty simple. The more common symptoms faced by most users are that after a user clicks on the ’shutdown’ button, the computer seems to be in a state of stasis and instead of shutting down, there is constant disk activity. The computer then seems to hang and the disk light dies, maybe hiccupping once in a while. Some people experience the “blue screen of death” and the familiar beep sound comes on whenever they try to press any of the keyboard buttons. If this is happening to you on almost a weekly basis then this article will definitely help you out, as it tells you what to do when your computer does not shut down.

The problem is most likely your system registry. This little component Windows uses is stored in the system folder and the easiest way of explaining its concept is that the registry is a sort of a critical log book that Windows uses. Every thing that happens within the Windows environment will be tracked in the log book and what the operating system lists down in the registry are the instructions of each and every program that is installed within it. It is not only limited to software, but hardware changes and instructions are also placed within the registry. This includes system files, load files, driver details – everything to make your programs run as they should. Now as time goes by, you would have done a lot of installing and uninstalling, and mistakes do happen since even computers and code are not perfect. So problems like invalid entries, lost and orphan data keys, blank spaces and even virulent lines of code written by malware and Trojan viruses get self invited to the registry. This means that your registry could possibly end up corrupted, and the common symptoms of this is a slower computer, common auto run errors, runtime errors and even Windows and program crashes.

There is always a reason why the computer cannot shut down. There are certain procedures that it does to shut down and the problem can occur when a registry entry for a program it’s trying to close is either lost or corrupted. Or the registry is filled with invalid system entries that choke the system when it is trying to exit from its operating system environment and close down critical system programs.

What you need to do of course is to get a registry cleaner, a program that is freely available on the internet. Download a good one – so do your research and soon your computer problems will go away and it will be able to shut down once again. The registry is actually the root of many problems within the Windows environment and you should always do a scan and clean once every week to ensure that it runs Healthily. This is what to do when your computer does not shut down and I hope this article has solved your problem.

Logan Albright
http://www.articlesbase.com/computers-articles/what-to-do-when-your-computer-does-not-shut-down-679174.html

Success in Internet Marketing can be extremely hard to come into, but there is an easy way with really no cash involved and it is by finding a niche and building a eccommere storefront around it. So you say how do you learn how to do that? Well the only way I know of that leads you to success is to invest in Niche Blueprint 2.0 by a couple successful marketers knows as Steven Clayton and Tim Godfrey. If you would like to read a review of the product please visit this link – http://wwwcommissionblueprint2.com/niche-blueprint-20/

Microsoft Dynamics GP, especially when ERP software is targeted to be implemented in matured organization with its own IT networking, hardware and legacy software lifecycle – you should pay special attention to the environment, where Dynamics GP Great Plains will be installed: server and workstations.  Hardware and software compatibility question comes from the architecture of Great Plains Dynamics, its GP Dexterity IDE and programming language.  Dexterity is written and supported in C++ programming language (which was designed to resolve OS dependence).  Paradox of hardware incompatibility might be seen in the fact, that some of the newest laser printers may not be compatible with Dynamics GP text reports; but the good news is that you can still likely to deploy the same newest printer for GP graphical reports: Check, SOP Invoice, POP Receipt, SOP Packing Slip.  Let’s look at the software and hardware recommendations:

1.       Server and Workstation Hardware.  You can download from your Microsoft Customer Source or Partner Source the hardware recommendation and printer compatibility list for supported versions of Dynamics GP: 10.0 and 9.0.  If you are setting up Dynamics GP for very small hardware confident organization, then you should be aware that GP Server will work on decent self assembled PC computer, pay attention to put more RAM (if using 32 bit Windows Server, place at least 2GB, if 64 bit – 8GB is good idea for 2009).  SCSI hard drive controller is recommended, but it is not really required – you should be OK with SATA and PATA HD, if you are confident in your backup (and restoring) strategy.  GP Workstation: with the introduction of Vista (and Vista 64 bit) – GP WS minimal requirements became really obsolete, as Vista sort of demands at least 1GB of RAM (where 64 bit Vista typically comes with 4GB of RAM on the hardware)

2.       64 vs 32 bit Windows Server.  If you are planning to deploy current Dynamics GP version 10.0, then feel free to purchase Windows 2003 and 2008 Server 64 bit with Microsoft SQL Server 2005 64 bit edition

3.       Windows 2003 R2 and Windows XP SP3.  Here you may have this problem: you can not install GP from the GP 10.0 installation CD, due to Dexterity components installation failure.  The work around is SkipDotNetCheck.mst and DexSkipDotNetCheck.mst

Andrew Karasev
http://www.articlesbase.com/software-articles/dynamics-gp-partner-san-diego-chicago-newsflash-hardware-and-software-compatibility-746688.html

Success in Internet Marketing can be extremely hard to come into, but there is an easy way with really no cash involved and it is by finding a niche and building a eccommere storefront around it. So you say how do you learn how to do that? Well the only way I know of that leads you to success is to invest in Niche Blueprint 2.0 by a couple successful marketers knows as Steven Clayton and Tim Godfrey. If you would like to read a review of the product please visit this link – http://wwwcommissionblueprint2.com/niche-blueprint-20/

While VoIP software will most likely retain its popularity with certain segments of people, most cable and phone companies offer hardware-based VoIP services. They bundle this with other packages they have to offer, and provide it all at one cost.

VoIP hardware tends to be more costly than VoIP software, but it is also much easier to configure. The only requirements to get started are a broadband connection and a router. A VoIP hardware connection would entail plugging a phone into a converter box, which, is then connected to your broadband modem. The advantage to a hardware connection is that you can make a call to anyone, even someone without the same service as you. This is a limitation some VoIP software providers have. Likewise, you can receive a call from anyone also. In addition, there are no hardware or software requirements between the sender and receiver. This really opens up the playing field.

Another benefit is that a VoIP hardware connection is not dependent on its location. If you have to Travel, all you have to do is simply take your VoIP phone adapter with you and plug it into any available broadband connection wherever you are. If you move to another house, there is no disconnection or change in phone number. You can have smooth and steady service. How much easier can it get?

There are different devices you can use to establish your VoIP hardware connection. One is an analog telephone adaptor (ATA). It links the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) telephone system and the VoIP network by converting your voice to digital before reaching the Internet. On one end it would be linked to an Internet connection router or modem, and the other end would be connected to a phone. Since the ATA is connected directly to the VoIP service provider, it eliminates the need for a computer or any type of software. You also don’t have to purchase any special phone to use it since it will work on your current phone. IP phones are another hardware option. They look like a regular phone, feel like a regular phone, but have an Ethernet connection to the Internet instead of a phone line. VoIP gateways, bridge a telephone network and equipment to VoIP networks. They combine a router and a voice over an IP adapter in a single device. They are often referred to as FXS (Foreign Exchange Station) devices. If you have a laptop to use at Home and want to move from room to room with it, you can set up a wireless gateway.

The hardware requirements to establish VoIP are minimal. Often, it is included in the applicable startup costs when you establish a service plan with a provider. VoIP hardware possesses higher voice quality, greater reliability and more flexibility. And you can also count on savings. Taking advantage of this is just a matter of looking around and finding out what is available, what you want it for and how you are going to use it.

Matthew Hick
http://www.articlesbase.com/voip-articles/voip-hardware-expand-your-options-97826.html

Success in Internet Marketing can be extremely hard to come into, but there is an easy way with really no cash involved and it is by finding a niche and building a eccommere storefront around it. So you say how do you learn how to do that? Well the only way I know of that leads you to success is to invest in Niche Blueprint 2.0 by a couple successful marketers knows as Steven Clayton and Tim Godfrey. If you would like to read a review of the product please visit this link – http://wwwcommissionblueprint2.com/niche-blueprint-20/

The popularity of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is increasing in popularity. Those who use their computers for virtually everything can now also use them to make and receive telephone calls. Many providers of residential VoIP services offer competitive packages, excellent customer service, and features that you already receive with your traditional phone service provider. In order to use residential VoIP services you need to have a high-speed Internet connection. If you have a slower connection, the quality of your calls greatly diminishes. You will also need a modem and adapter that connects your phone line to your computer. The majority of VoIP services provide this in their packages.

There are two different types of VoIP for residential use: hardware VoIP and software VoIP. The primary difference is that with hardware VoIP you will need an adapter to connect your phone to your computer. With software VoIP, you install a special program for making and receiving calls with your computer. Whether you use hardware VoIP or software VoIP it is certain you will save money over using your traditional phone service.

Software VoIP works well if you were going to occasional use it or if you were Traveling. You can have it installed on your laptop and take it with you. You can make calls from anywhere with your Home number. Another benefit of software VoIP is that you can get very low International rates. Most providers of this type of service allow you to download the software free once you have established an account with them. All you need for this type of service is a computer with a sound card, speakers, and a microphone. With most services, all calls made within the network are free and you only pay for calls made outside the network.

Hardware VoIP looks much like your traditional phone as you use can use your phone. You connect your phone line into an adapter, which then connects to the computer. This type of plan typically offers limited calling plans throughout the United States and Canada or unlimited calling features.

Remember that residential VoIP services run on electricity so it would be wise to have a back-up plan in case the power went out. Do not sign a contract without fully understanding the charges that apply. Carefully review the plans that are offered and no whether you will pay a penalty if you decide to cancel the service. Check to see if there is an installment fee or fee for the equipment. Once you have decided on your residential VoIP provider – enjoy the new world of making calls from your computer.

Michael Williams
http://www.articlesbase.com/voip-articles/voip-hardware-and-voip-software-what-should-i-use-45556.html

Success in Internet Marketing can be extremely hard to come into, but there is an easy way with really no cash involved and it is by finding a niche and building a eccommere storefront around it. So you say how do you learn how to do that? Well the only way I know of that leads you to success is to invest in Niche Blueprint 2.0 by a couple successful marketers knows as Steven Clayton and Tim Godfrey. If you would like to read a review of the product please visit this link – http://wwwcommissionblueprint2.com/niche-blueprint-20/

Buying a Computer does not need to be a budget breaker. A Computer purchase often includes additional components and software that are not needed and can be avoided…if you are well prepared with the correct information.

To help, the following tips can be used to save money on your next Computer purchase:

Tip #1 – Take a look at your Computer case. If it is not a name brand Computer more than likely the case is expandable and can be reused. Cases can cost anywhere from $25 to $100. If you have a mid tower case, check how many bays are available for CD/DVD drives, and other peripherals, Are the USB and audio ports in the front?

Cases are often an over-looked item that usually can be used over and over again.

Tip #2 – Monitor Keyboard and Mouse – Just because you are purchasing a new Computer does not mean the keyboard and mouse need to be replaced. An Optical mouse last longer than the ball style mouse. The same principal applies to keyboards, unless you are a heavy Computer user and the keys are worn and do not respond, you probably don’t need a new keyboard.

Monitors may need to be replayed if want to upgrade to a larger screen size. If you are happy with your monitor and are having no problems with it, you are better of keeping it a little longer until you can afford a new Monitor.

Tip #3 – Software License – Many people forget when purchasing a new Computer the cost of the Operating System license is included in the price. If the new Computer has the same OS installed, don’t pay for another license.

The same applies for other software such as Microsoft Office. Unless you want to upgrade to another OS or Office version, save your money. Significant savings can be realized by not purchasing un-needed software license costs.

Tip #4 – Consider No Name Brand – While Dell, Hp and Sony are some of the big names with Computers, the reality is that most Computers originate from the same area in Asia, specifically laptops. Consider shopping for lesser name brands, or visiting your local Computer repair store.

Unknown brand names such as Acer, are usually cheaper, yet inside the case or laptop, the parts are the same. Computer repair stores allows for customization, so you can tailor to your need, not by what is on the shelf allowing for more savings.

Tip #5 – Warranty – With Technology advancing, what seems like the speed of sound, the life span of Computers tend to run about three to five years. Its not that the hardware starts to fail, but advancements in Software requires more processing power and increased memory requirements.

Consider the length and type of warranty at time of purchase. Also consider the warranty that comes with the Computer. It may be possible that purchasing an extended warranty may not be needed for a desktop, but may be needed for laptops.

Tip #6 – Labor costs – Adding or upgrading involves labor which amounts to additional costs. If you are somewhat technical or handy, consider installing any additional components yourself. There are lots of how – to tutorials on the Internet, with video that detail many types of installations.

As always with making a big purchase, research and shop around for prices. Understanding what your price range is will keep you from overspending, while becoming knowledgeable about what you are buying, will keep the salesman commissions from emptying your wallet!

Mike Boyd
http://www.articlesbase.com/computers-articles/6-tips-for-saving-money-on-your-next-computer-purchase-139682.html

A tv computer cable is a cord connecting a computer and a television to enable display of images from the monitor on the television. This way, you can enjoy watching internet television or insert your favorite DVDs in your computer’s drive and watch the show on TV. Alternatively, you may also use the television as a big-screen monitor for your computer and enhance your web-surfing sessions. Best of all, the cable transforms your computer into a home theater PC to boost your Home entertainment system.

Every version of tv computer cable works in a different way. The cables mainly differ in the way they connect to the computer. These cables are usually connected to the computer via the outputs on the video card. Then there are different ways in each television supports the connection by a particular cable.

The User-Friendly Cable

A standard tv computer cable simply directs your monitor displays to the television. Depending on your current PC settings and the make of your television, you may have to work on the display options and hardware of your computer to get crystal-clear displays on your television. This is because televisions feature different display resolutions as compared to monitors.

However, those cables that also serve as converters will automatically adjust the display on your television. These cables usually need a power source like the USB port of the computer. With such cables, you simply have to plug in the cable and enjoy your videos on the TV.

TV displays are a good option if you intend to use it for watching television shows and movies. However, a television might not be the best choice if you simply need a larger computer monitor. The PC to TV cable may not work if your computer is an older version with an out-of-date video card. Old televisions with low resolutions might also present problems with display.

Lastly, remember that a tv computer cable will not allow you to watch television displays on your PC. For such a purpose, you would need to install a TV tuner card.

Stephenfeilds
http://www.articlesbase.com/television-articles/versions-and-functions-of-tv-computer-cables-724474.html

Copyright (c) 2007 Dean Barnard

Computer programming is at the core of any computer operation. Unlike usual electro mechanical devices, a computer requires software to carry out instructions. At the lowest level, machine code is used to control the hardware and operations of a computer. The machine language is a set of zeros and ones and rather tedious to handle. Therefore the instructions are coded in a higher level language called a computer program. The conversion of a higher level language into a machine code is carried out by assembly level languages or assemblers. The transformation is completed without any human interface.

During the initial days when computer programs were still at a nascent stage of development, languages such as COBOL and BASIC were highly popular. As the computing power of computers increased ,the demand for more efficient programs emerged. The third generation programs had better portability and efficiency compared to the earlier generations. The need to handle enormous amount of data gave rise to specialized software called database management software or more specifically relational database management software. Companies like Oracle, IBM and Microsoft have developed their own version of RDBMS. On the processing front ,Mainframes were using COLOL for Business applications and FORTRAN ( Formula Translation ) for scientific applications.

The concept of modularity became popular when hundreds of software programmers worked simultaneously on a single large project. Object oriented programs like C++ gathered popularity. The code used in these higher level languages was reusable and the techniques could provide for better efficiency.

Microsoft meanwhile brought out its own operating system which could be used on personal computers. In a matter of years the Windows OS became a unprecedented success. The OS2 operating system used by Apple computers was relegated to a second position. IBM has been providing other system software but none could reach the popularity levels of Windows. The only problem with Windows is the issue of security breaches. Though Microsoft has been striving hard to plug the security holes, it has not been entirely successful.

Modern computer programs strive more and more to behave like human language. Technologists believe that a day would come when one could program a computer by given verbal instructions. Surely that’s not going to happen in a hurry. Artificial intelligence, expert systems, fuzzy logic and many more state of the art Technologies are changing the face of programming.

Computers unlike any other machine require a software program to operate. It speaks in machine language which is gibberish to the human mind. Higher level languages are used to translate recognizable instructions into machine language. As we progress, the higher level languages would resemble human languages.

At the beginning of the computer era, a single program used to execute different functions. Today, specialized programs are tailor made for different applications. Complex programs require many programmers to work simultaneously on a single project. Modular languages are well suited for such large projects. Object oriented programming has become popular due to their modularity and ease of use.

Dean Barnard
http://www.articlesbase.com/computers-articles/all-about-computer-programming-216469.html

Copyright (c) 2009 Titus Hoskins

Before you can even decide what make of computer you want, whether it is a Dell, Mac or Hewlett Packard… you need to answer this burning question: will your next computer be a laptop or a desktop PC?

In order to answer this question you need to do your research. You need to familiarize yourself with both laptops and PCs. The reason that I say this is because as with all purchasing decisions there are pros and cons to whatever decision you make. In order to make the most informed decision as to which choice will be your next computer, you need to not only look into the advantages and disadvantages of each of them but you also need to make sure that you apply these pros and cons to your individual circumstances.

So what exactly are these pros and cons?

If you are looking into desktop PCs you will see that they are usually cheaper than laptops and for the money that you are paying you will get a lot more hardware/software. You get a faster computer at a lower price. That’s the main reason many gamers tend to opt for desktop PCs over laptops as they are more suited to gaming and audio/video applications. However, recent developments have meant that there are now laptops coming out that have been primarily designed for gamers. The performance gap is narrowing swiftly.

While laptop prices are falling, they are generally more expensive than PCs because of their design aspect but mainly because they haven’t been around as long as PCs. Generally over time, electronic goods such as TVs, DVD players, computers… usually come down in price as makers recoup their initial manufacturing costs.

Another plus point for a PC comes in the fact that they are easily upgradable. If you want to upgrade the graphics card to a more powerful one you can. If you want to change or add another hard drive then go right ahead. With a laptop however, they may require professional installation and in many cases you are unable to upgrade or add to the technology that appears within it. They are a lot more troublesome to deal with when it comes to modifying or repairing them.

Despite these advantages that the PC holds over the laptop hasn’t stop the popularity of laptops from growing and expanding. There are in fact now more laptops being brought than desktops and this is a trend that is set to increase.

One of the main advantages that exist with laptops is the fact that they are portable. Many people now need a laptop in order to stay more productive. They allow you to access files and data at anytime and from any location, which is a necessity for many people due to our fast paced and on the go society. Also thanks to Wi-Fi wireless networks the connectivity of laptops are amazing. You are able to gain easy access to the Internet while you remain mobile.

Another pro to having a laptop as your next computer as oppose to a desktop PC is the fact that with a laptop you have low power consumption. The reason for this is that laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20-90 W, compared to 100-800 W for desktops. I feel that this is an important feature, especially for Businesses that run hundreds of personal computers as it could ensure that you have a multitude of potential savings. It is also helpful to homes where there is a computer running 24/7 such as a Home media server or print server.

Nor should you ignore the aesthetic appeal of the laptop. They have great style and design which makes them attractive to potential buyers. Gaming laptops are especially decked out with flashy decor and pizazz; while you should never buy a computer for its looks, many people do just that!

These are just a few examples of the pros and cons that are associated with laptops and desktop PCs. There are good and bad points for each option, so depending on what you need your computer for you may opt for a laptop or you may opt for a PC. The most important thing is that you make your choice based on your needs to ensure that you get the most out of your computer. Satisfy your own needs first and you won’t be disappointed with your final choice.

Titus Hoskins
http://www.articlesbase.com/computers-articles/laptop-or-pc-what-should-your-next-computer-be-742417.html

You can watch TV on computer at your office or at Home. You can watch your favorite TV programs on your computer literally anywhere even in an airplane or on your laptop. That is the advantage of TV computer. What you only need is high-speed internet connection and satellite TV software.

You might wonder why billions of people are already watching TV streams on computer through the internet. Satellite TV software enables you to see the TV programs online. You can download the satellite TV software from the internet from end number of vendors. The installation is quick and easy. It is very simple to use and install since you get step-by-step easy installation process. Moreover, the navigation bar is user-friendly.

What You Need

You need not to pay any subscription fee to watch TV on computer. All you need to pay is one time fee for the satellite TV software that would be anywhere around $50. Remember you need not to pay further after this initial payment. You can cut down your subscription costs significantly. You do not require any equipment or hardware to watch TV on computer once you get the satellite TV software. However, make sure that you have a broadband connection for TV feed transmission. Dialup is also fine if the connection is good.

The satellite TV software has a built-in intelligent interface that makes  watching TV on computer hassle-free. It is very easy to search and find TV programs through this interface. You can save the desired channels while you watch. That will help you to get the same channel easily when you want to see the next time. The number of channels that you can watch, the affordability and usability in TV computer is far better in TV computer, as compared to traditional satellite TV subscriptions. You pay almost nothing for the services.

grantrover
http://www.articlesbase.com/television-articles/watching-tv-on-computer-745249.html

RAM is also used to store instructions about currently running applications.
For example, when you start a computer game, a large set of the game’s instructions
(for example, how it works, how the screen should look, which sounds must be
generated) is loaded into memory. The processor can retrieve these instructions
much faster from RAM than it can from the hard drive, where the game normally
resides until you start it. Within certain limits, the more information that’s stored
in memory, the faster the computer will run. In fact, one of the most common
computer upgrades is to increase the amount of RAM.
The information in RAM is continually being read, changed, and removed. It is
also volatile, meaning that it cannot work without a steady power supply. When a
computer is turned off, the information in RAM is lost.
Recall that when a user makes a request, it is intercepted by the processor, which then
organizes the request into component-specific tasks. Many of these tasks must occur in
a specific order, with each component reporting its results back to the processor before
the next task can be completed. The processor uses RAM to store these results until
they can be compiled into the final result(s).
Many desktop components, such as the processor, power supply, and RAM, are installed
through simple physical attachment to the computer. That is, physical installation is
all that is required to make the component functional. Other devices, such as hard
drives and keyboards, require the additional assignment of system resources. This section
focuses on the physical installation of common components; resource assignment is
discussed in the next section, “IRQs, DMAs, and I/O Addresses.” Special hardware
configurations are discussed in Chapter 2.

Memory
The first RAM chips were dual inline packages (DIP) that attached directly into sockets
on the system board. However, their design made them prone to loosening due to the
alternating heating and cooling of the system board. Newer memory modules are actually
small cards with DIP chips on one or both sides. These cards fit upright into slots on the
system board and are held in place by clips that prevent “chip creep” (loosening).
RAM is automatically detected and counted on startup, so its installation is limited
to physical placement in the computer. That is, once RAM is physically installed,
no additional configuration is required. When installing memory in a motherboard,
verify the types and amounts of memory that the motherboard can accept.
SIMM Memory Single inline memory module (SIMM) memory is available
in 30- and 72-connector configurations. Most 80386, 80486, and Pentium
computers include slots for both SIMM types. Follow the steps in Exercise 1-5
to install SIMM.
However, newer drives are able to access RAM
directly using a protocol called Ultra DMA (UDMA). UDMA is a protocol used only
by hard drives and is not functionally associated with a computer’s standard DMA
channels.

As you know Memory, one function of RAM is to provide the processor with faster access to the
information it needs. Within limits, the more memory a computer has, the faster it will
run. One of the most common computer upgrades is the installation of more RAM.
Recall that most computers can use another type of RAM, called cache memory.
Cache memory chips can be accessed even faster than regular RAM, so their presence
can help speed up the computer. Generally, the more cache a computer has, the faster
it will run. The type of cache that can be added to the computer is called Level 2 (L2)
cache, and it can be installed in available slots on the motherboard.

Additional RAM Memory can be added to a portable system in a number of ways. Some systems
include extra RAM slots within the chassis. This type requires you to open the
computer’s case and place the RAM module in an available slot (see Figure 2-14).
Because RAM modules for portables are proprietary, you cannot use them in desktop
computers or in other portables.
An easier way to add more RAM to your portable is to use a memory PC Card.
PC Cards were described earlier as being small cards that can be easily inserted in a
portable to enhance or expand its abilities. In fact, PC Cards originated as PCMCIA
cards specifically for the purpose of adding more memory. PCMCIA stands for Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association, a bit of a misnomer because these
cards are usually used in laptops, not in PCs (desktops).
Processor and Memory Symptoms
In most cases, processor and memory problems are fatal, meaning that when there is
such a problem, the computer will not boot at all. However, you should be aware of
some nonfatal error indicators. As described, 1** error codes are typical of processor
problems, and 2** error codes are typical of memory problems.
If you turn on the computer and it does not even complete the POST or it does
nothing at all, and you have eliminated power problems, there might be a problem
with the processor or memory. The solution to a processor or memory problem is to
remove the offending component and replace it with a new one. If the error persists,
there might be a problem with the slot or socket that the memory or processor uses
to connect to the motherboard. In this case, the motherboard needs to be replaced.
On a final note: Some RAM errors are not reported by the computer at all. That
is, if an entire memory module does not work, the computer might just ignore it and
continue to function normally without it.Watch as the RAM is counted on the screen
at startup to ensure that the total amount matches the capacity installed in the
machine. If this amount comes up significantly short, you probably have to replace
the memory module.
Memory failures may not cause a system to appear to malfunction at all.
Most modern systems will simply ignore a memory card that has malfunctioned
and normal operations will continue. The user may note performance loss,
which is a key symptom of a memory card failure.
Random Access Memory
The primary function of RAM is to provide a temporary storage place for information
about devices and applications. However, there are many types of RAM with which
you should be familiar. This section discusses the many incarnations of RAM as it has
been developed and refined over time. This section also discusses important factors
to consider when installing or upgrading the RAM in a computer system: there are
guidelines you must follow about the type of RAM, the type of package, and the amounts
of RAM that you install in a particular system.

Types of RAM
RAM is not all the same. Over time, RAM technology has improved, changed form, and
been used for specialized components. The most common types of RAM are discussed here.
SRAM
Static RAM (SRAM) was the first type of RAM available. SRAM can be accessed at
approximately 10 nanoseconds (ns), meaning that it takes about 10ns for the processor
to receive requested information from SRAM. The structure of SRAM chips limits
them to a maximum data capacity of 256KB. Although SRAM is very fast compared
with DRAM, it is also very expensive. For this reason, SRAM is typically used only for
system cache.

DRAM
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) was developed to combat the restrictive expense of using
SRAM. DRAM chips provide much slower access than SRAM chips but can store
several megabytes of data on a single chip (or hundreds of megabytes if they are packaged
together on a module). Every “cell” in a DRAM chip contains one transistor and one
capacitor to store a single bit of information. This design makes it necessary for the
DRAM chip to receive a constant power refresh from the computer to prevent the
capacitors from losing their charge. This constant refresh can make access even slower
and causes the DRAM chip to draw more power from the computer than an SRAM
chip. Because of its low cost and high capacity, DRAM is used as “main” memory in
the computer.
The term DRAM is typically used to describe any type of memory that uses the
technology just described. However, the first DRAM chips were very slow (~80–90ns),
so faster variants have been developed. The list is quite large and includes fast-paged
RAM, EDO RAM, SDRAM, RDRAM, SDLRAM, and BEDO RAM. As computer
systems improve, the list of DRAM technologies continues to grow. However, EDO,
SDRAM, RDRAM, and DDR RAM are currently the most common, so they are
described here.

EDO RAM
Extended data out (EDO) RAM improves on traditional DRAM by performing more
than one task at a time. When one piece of data is being sent to the processor, another
is being retrieved from the RAM module. While that piece of data is being transferred,
the EDO RAM is looking for the next piece to retrieve for the processor. This process
enables the chip’s data to be accessed at about 60ns. EDO RAM chips can be used
only in a computer system whose processor and motherboard support its use.

SDRAM
Synchronous dynamic RAM, or SDRAM, is about twice as fast as EDO RAM because it
is able to run at the speed of the system bus (up to 100–133MHz). However, as faster
system bus speeds are developed, EDO and SDRAM are being replaced with other,
faster types of DRAM, such as RDRAM and DDR RAM. Like EDO RAM, SDRAM
can be used only in systems that support it.

RDRAM
RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic RAM) gets its name from the company that developed
it, Rambus, Inc. RDRAM uses a special Rambus channel that has a data transfer
rate of 800MHz. The channel width can be doubled, resulting in a 1.6GHz data
transfer! RDRAM can be used only in computers with special RDRAM channels
and slots. RDRAM is fairly new, so don’t expect to see it in computers that were
manufactured before 1999.
DDR RAM
Double-data rate (DDR) RAM doubles the rate of speed at which standard SDRAM
can process data. That means DDR is roughly twice as fast as standard RAM.
The standards available for DDR RAM are PC 1600, PC 2100, and PC2700. This
new labeling refers to the total bandwidth of the memory, as opposed to the old
standard, which listed the speed rating (in MHz) of the SDRAM memory—in this
case, the PC66, PC100, and the PC133. The numeric value in the PC66, PC100,
and PC133 refers to the MHz speed that the memory operates at.
VRAM
Video RAM (VRAM) is a specialized type of memory that is used only with video
adapters. The video adapter is one of the computer’s busiest components, so to keep up
with video requirements, many adapters have an on-board micro-microprocessor and
special video RAM. The adapter can process requests independently of the CPU, then
store its results in the VRAM until the CPU retrieves it. VRAM is much faster than
EDO RAM and is capable of being read from and written to at the same time. The
result is better and faster video performance. Because VRAM includes more circuitry
than regular DRAM, VRAM modules are slightly larger.
The term Video RAM refers to both a specific type of memory and a generic term
for all RAM used by the video adapter (much like the term DRAM, which is often
used to denote all types of memory that are dynamic). Faster versions of video memory
have been introduced, including WRAM.
WRAM
Window RAM (WRAM) is another type of video RAM but it provides faster access
than VRAM. It uses the same dual-ported technology that allows devices to read and
write data to the video memory at the same time. The term “window” refers to its

Physical Characteristics
The RAM types discussed so far can have many different physical forms. Your system
must support both the technology and form of a memory module. The system must
also support the data width of the memory as well as its method of error correction.
The following subsections describe some common physical forms of memory modules
and other characteristics that distinguish one module from another.
Single Inline Memory Modules
The first memory chips were dual inline package (DIP) chips, which were inserted
directly onto the motherboard. However, as discussed in Chapter 1, their structure
made them prone to chip creep. Single inline memory modules (SIMMs) were
developed to combat this loosening of memory chips and to recover space on the
motherboard.
SIMMs are available in 30-pin and 72-pin forms. Thirty-pin SIMMs are 8-bit,
meaning that data can be transferred into or out of the module 8 bits at a time.
Seventy-two-pin SIMMs are 32-bit. Because SIMMs are older technology, they are
typically used for fast-paged and EDO RAM. You are not as likely to find a SIMM
with SDRAM, since dual inline memory modules (DIMMs) were the prevalent form
when SDRAM was introduced.
Dual Inline Memory Modules
Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMM) modules look similar to SIMMs but are slightly
longer and are installed into a different type of slot. DIMMs have two rows of connectors,
168 connectors in all, and are 64 bits. DIMMs are likely to contain either EDO RAM
or SDRAM because those Technologies were common when DIMMs were introduced.
Rambus Inline Memory Module
The Rambus Inline Memory Module (RIMM) is designed specifically for use with
Rambus memory. RIMMs look just like DIMMs but have 184 connectors. They are
also more proprietary and less common than SIMMs and DIMMs. RIMMs are 16-bit.
Small Outline DIMM
Small Outline DIMM (SoDIMM) is a memory module frequently used in laptop computers.
The physical size is much smaller than DIMM memory. The most common pin
configurations are 72- and 144-pin modules.

Parity and Nonparity Chips
One type of memory error checking is called parity. In parity, every byte of data is
accompanied by a ninth bit (the parity bit), which is used by the receiving device to
determine the presence of errors in the data. There are two types of parity: odd and
even. In odd parity, the parity bit is used to ensure the total number of 1s in the data
stream is odd. For example, suppose a byte consists of the following data: 11010010.
The number of 1s in this data is 4, an even number. The ninth bit will be a 1, to
ensure that the total number of 1s is odd: 110100101.
Even parity is the opposite of odd parity; it ensures that the total number of 1s is
even. For example, suppose a byte consists of the following data: 11001011 the ninth
bit would be a 1 to ensure that the total number of 1s is 6, an even number.
Parity is not failure-proof. Suppose the preceding data stream contained two
errors: 101100101. If the computer was using odd parity, the error would slip through
(try it; count the 1s). However, parity is a quick routine and does not inhibit the
access time of memory the way a more sophisticated error-checking routine would.
Some memory modules also use parity. These modules include an extra bit for
parity for every 8 bits of data. Therefore, a 30-pin SIMM without parity is 8 bits;
with parity it’s 9 bits. A DIMM without parity is 64 bits; with parity, the DIMM has
8 extra bits (1 parity bit for every 8 data bits). Therefore, a DIMM with parity has
64 + 8 = 72 bits. If your system supports parity, you must use parity memory modules.
You cannot use memory with parity if your system does not support it.

If there is more than one printer port on the computer (LPT1 & 2 or multiple
USB ports), try the printer in another port or with another computer. Look at the
printer settings in the OS to ensure that the attached printer matches the type
selected in the printer settings area. Finally, this problem could be the result of
insufficient printer memory. You can test this hypothesis by trying to print a very
small document. If it works, there is a good chance that the original document was
too large for the printer’s memory. You can add more RAM to the printer using the
same modules that the computer uses (SIMMs or DIMMs).

Conventional Memory The first 640KB of RAM have traditionally been used
for running applications and the OS itself (DOS). This memory area was originally
called system memory. The term system memory now refers to all the memory
available in the system.
Upper Memory The remaining 384KB of memory were set aside (reserved) for
ROM BIOS, and the RAM and ROM that was installed on devices. Applications
could not access this memory space even if it wasn’t being entirely used by the system.
This memory space was initially termed reserved memory. It was very common for
devices such as video adapters to use a portion of this memory for its purposes.
Extended and High Memory When the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet application
was released, users often found that it required more than 640KB of memory. To
resolve the 1MB memory barrier problem, Lotus, Intel, and Microsoft joined forces
and developed the LIM memory specification. In this specification, system memory
was renamed conventional memory and reserved memory was renamed upper memory.
More important, however, was the development of a memory manager that allowed
applications to use memory over 1MB (called extended memory). This manager, a file
called HIMEM.SYS, could also load the OS into the first 64KB of extended memory,
an area called the high memory area (HMA).
To use the extended memory specification (XMS), HIMEM.SYS must be referenced
in the CONFIG.SYS file, as shown here:
DEVICE=C:DOSHIMEM.SYS
DOS=HIGH
The first line instructs the computer to locate and initialize the HIMEM.SYS file,
thus enabling the extended memory area. The second line loads DOS into the high
memory area (HMA).
Expanded Memory At the time of the LIM specification release, many users
still had older Intel 8088 and 80286 computers, which, because of the small memory
address bus, could not be made to access memory over 1MB. For these individuals,
the LIM specification included an expanded memory manager that could “trick” the
processor into using extended memory. In the 80386 processor, a file called EMM386
.EXE is able to swap pages of memory between extended memory and upper memory.

Now you can buy your RAM MEMORY TEST PRO software and pay by PAYPAL.

Jose Roberto Simoes

Jose Roberto Simoes
http://www.articlesbase.com/hardware-articles/how-computer-ram-memory-works-716360.html